Circuit Response
every model has an edge, and the figure carries it
Concept

Magnetic path — where it appears

The route the flux takes around a core, whose length and cross-section fix the reluctance a winding works against. Adding an air gap raises that reluctance enormously, which lowers the inductance and moves almost all of the stored energy into the gap.

Named by 8 essays across one field — each of them below, with the objects they name alongside it.

A gapped core: where the inductance goes, and where the energy is. computed by solving, not by drawing. Reluctance in series — the gap's lg/µ₀Ae and the core's le/µ₀µᵣAe — with the inductance N²/ℛ and the share of the stored energy in each proportional to its share of the reluctance. At two hundred microns on a µᵣ = 2000 core the inductance has fallen from 41.89 mH to 5.366, and 87.2% of the energy is in the gap — which is air. The share is lg/(lg + le/µᵣ), so it contains neither the turns nor the area and what decides it is µᵣ·lg against the path length; the slider shows the same gap holding 40% at µᵣ = 200 and 98% at 15,000. That is the reason a gap is a design parameter: it is the part of the magnetic circuit whose properties do not drift, do not saturate and do not depend on temperature.

The energy is in the gap

A ferrite core is chosen for its permeability and then deliberately cut, and the cut is not a compromise. Reluctance adds in series, so a two-hundred-micron gap in a µᵣ = 2000 core holds 87.0% of the stored energy while the ferrite holds thirteen — and the share is lg/(lg + le/µᵣ), a ratio of two lengths, containing neither the turns nor the area. The material chosen for its permeability holds almost none of what the component stores.

magnetics · Magnetic path The voltage a winding may carry, which is a volt-second limit read at a frequency. computed by solving, not by drawing. The dots are bisections on a marched flux — the voltage integrated sample by sample until the peak excursion reaches 0.35 T — and the line is N·Ae·Bsat·2πf. They agree to 0.001% over three decades, and the fitted slope is 1.000000: exactly proportional, because flux is the integral of voltage and nothing else. The quantity that belongs to the core is the 3.500 mWb-turn, which has no frequency in it. A transformer "rated for 50 Hz" is a transformer whose volt-second product was divided by 2π × 50 once.

A boundary in volt-seconds

A core saturates on the integral of the voltage applied to it, not on the current through it and not at a frequency. The quantity that belongs to the core is N·Ae·Bsat — 3.500 mWb-turn here — and it has no frequency in it at all. Everything a data sheet says about a transformer's frequency rating is that one number divided by 2πf once: measured on a marched flux, the voltage a winding may carry is proportional to frequency to a fitted exponent of 1.000000.

magnetics · Saturation A 1% imbalance, and the 64 cycles it survives. computed by solving, not by drawing. The upper panel is the peak flux density, marched cycle by cycle, under a square drive whose positive half is 1% larger in area than its negative half. It does not settle. It walks, by the same area every cycle, and reaches 0.35 T after 64 cycles — 1280 ms at 50 Hz — against a closed form of 63.7. The lower panel is the count against the imbalance, and it rises without bound and never becomes infinite. Halving the drive gives 128 cycles, which is exactly twice: reducing the amplitude buys time and not safety, and there is no amplitude at which this design is inside a limit.

The flux that walks

The previous essay's saturation limit is an amplitude, and an amplitude can be respected. This one cannot. A drive whose two half-cycles differ in volt-seconds by one per cent adds the same small area to the flux every cycle, so it reaches saturation after 64 cycles — and halving the drive gives 128, and a tenth of it gives 637. Reducing the amplitude buys time in exact proportion and removes nothing. There is no amplitude at which the design is inside a limit.

magnetics · Saturation A 0.5 mm conductor's resistance against frequency, exact and asymptotic. computed by solving, not by drawing. The exact ratio is computed from the Kelvin functions by their series; the dashed curve is the asymptote everybody quotes, which treats the current as flowing in one skin depth of the rim and is drawn only where that annulus is inside the wire. At 17.4 kHz, where the skin depth equals the radius and the rule of thumb says the effect "starts", the asymptote says 1.0000 — no effect at all — and the exact answer is already 1.0208. The rule of thumb names a frequency the effect has passed, which is the same shape as the tenth-of-a-wavelength criterion marking a point at which the lumped model is already 30% wrong. Two decades above, the two agree to 0.00%, which is what makes it an asymptote rather than a formula.

The resistance that grows with frequency

The rule of thumb names the frequency at which the skin depth equals the conductor's radius as the point where the effect begins. Computed exactly from the Kelvin functions, the resistance is already 2.05% up there — and the rule's own asymptote says 1.0000, no effect at all. Two decades higher the two agree to 0.01%, which is what makes it an asymptote rather than a formula, and what makes the frequency it names the wrong one to design at.

magnetics · Winding The fringing field, and the turns standing in it. computed by solving, not by drawing. The slot on the left is the gap, cut through the centre leg to the core's own symmetry plane where the potential is zero. Flux crossing it does not stay in the slot: it bulges into the window and crosses the copper at right angles to the layers, which is the one direction Dowell's expression and every one-dimensional winding model assumes has no field in it. The turns are shaded by their own loss. The worst is turn 4, level with the gap, at 32.5 times its direct-current dissipation; the best is 1.39 times. Same wire, same current, same winding, and a spread of 23.4 between them.

The turns nearest the gap

A gapped inductor's flux does not turn a corner into the iron on its way out of the gap; it bulges into the window and crosses the copper at right angles to the layers. Four tenths of a millimetre from a one-millimetre gap, the worst turn of an eight-turn winding dissipates 37.5 times its direct-current loss and the winding as a whole 14.1 times. Move the same winding three millimetres further out and those become 2.9 and 2.4 — and the distance that governs it is 0.60 millimetres, which is not the gap length and does not scale with it.

magnetics · Winding field How much larger a gap is than its own length says. computed by solving, not by drawing. A magnetic circuit prices a gap as g/(µ₀A) and everybody knows that is low, because the flux bulges out of the sides. The usual repair is to add one gap length to each dimension of the gap's area, which is the dashed line. The measurement is the solid one: at a 0.3 mm gap in a 6 mm leg the true correction is 1.100 and the rule offers 1.050, so the rule supplies 50 per cent of a correction worth 10 per cent of the inductance; at 1.7 mm it supplies 85 per cent. The rule is not wrong so much as it is a rule whose accuracy depends on the thing it is correcting.

The gap that is bigger than it is

A magnetic circuit prices a gap as g/µ₀A and everybody knows that is low, because the flux bulges out of the sides. The usual repair — add one gap length to each dimension of the gap's area — supplies half the correction at a 0.3 mm gap and 85 per cent at 1.7 mm, on a correction worth 10 per cent of the inductance at the first and 33 at the second. It is not a rule that is right or wrong; it is a rule whose accuracy is a function of the very thing it is correcting.

magnetics · Magnetic path 3 gaps of 0.40 mm, where one of 1.20 would do. computed by solving, not by drawing. The same total gap, the same turns, the same core, and very nearly the same inductance — cut into 3 instead of one. Each gap now drops one part in 3 of the magnetomotive force, so the field it throws into the window is that much weaker; and because the field's own energy goes as its square, the loss it causes falls faster than the field does. The winding dissipates 3.00 times its direct-current loss here against 6.52 with a single gap, and its worst turn 3.7 against 13.3.

The gap that is three gaps

Reluctances in series add, so one gap of 1.2 millimetres and three of 0.4 are the same magnetic circuit: the same inductance, the same saturation current, the same energy in the air. They are not the same field. Solved in two dimensions, the winding beside the single gap dissipates 6.52 times its direct-current loss and its worst turn 13.3; beside three gaps those are 3.00 and 3.7. And there is a best number of gaps rather than a monotone gain — past three, spreading them along the leg brings each one close to a different part of the winding.

magnetics · Magnetic path A power ferrite driven one way to 0.3 T: ungapped, every pulse starts at 90.8 mT; with a 0.1 mm gap, at 22.0 mT. computed by solving, not by drawing, marched on the hysteretic core. A ferrite with 90.6 mT of remanence and a coercive field of 38 A/m, 100 turns on 100 mm² and 60 mm of path, its flux raised to 0.3 T by a pulse and then released by letting the winding current fall to zero, cycle after cycle until the starting flux stops moving. Ungapped (solid) the release ends at H = 0 on the descending branch, 90.8 mT: each pulse can add only 209.2 mT. With a 0.1 mm gap (dashed) the current is zero where le·H + lg·B/μ₀ = 0 — the shear line (dotted) — at H = −29.0 A/m and 22.0 mT, under the bound μ₀·Hc·le/lg = 30.2 mT; each pulse can add 278.0 mT.

The flux the reset leaves behind

A transformer driven one way only — a forward converter, a single-ended pulse transformer — is reset each cycle by letting its magnetising current fall to zero, and zero current is not zero flux. Marched on the hysteretic core, a power ferrite with 90.6 mT of remanence driven to 0.3 T starts every pulse but the first at 90.8 mT, and keeps 34.9% of the swing a symmetric drive would get, where half is the most a one-way drive could; a square-loop core starts at 212 mT and keeps 14.7%. A gap shears the loop: the current is zero where H = −lg·B/(μ₀·le), so the start is bounded by μ₀·Hc·le/lg and falls onto the bound as the gap grows — 22.0 mT at 0.1 mm, recovering 69 mT of swing for 239 mA more magnetising current. The first pulse from a demagnetised core is the only one that starts at zero, and it is the one a bench test sees.

magnetics · Saturation

Named alongside it

The objects these essays reach for when they reach for this one.

Model rangeAir gapEnergy-storageField solutionFlux densityFringing fieldReluctanceSaturationDesign tradeoffHot spotProximity effectVolt-seconds

All concepts